Narater2009: Persecution of Muslims 2

Mongol persecution of Muslims

Further information: Battle of Baghdad (1258) and Mongol invasions of Syria

Site where the Mongol rulerHulegu Khan destroyed a Baghdadmosque during the sack of Baghdad.

Following the brutal Mongol invasion of Central Asia under Genghis Khan and after the sack of Baghdad , the Mongol Empire 's rule extended across most Muslim lands in Asia. The Abbasid caliphate was destroyed and Islamic civilization , especially Mesopotamia , suffered much devastation and was replaced by Buddhism as the official religion of the land, since this was the Mongols' faith. ^{[ 103 ]} However, the Mongols attacked people for goods and riches, not because of their religion. Many later Mongol khans and rulers became Muslims themselves like Oljeitu and other Ilkhanid and Golden Horderulers and inhabitants. There was no real effort to replace Islam with any other religion, but to plunder goods from anyone that didn't submit, which is a characteristic of Mongol warfare. Also the religion of the Mongols at the time were mostly Shamanism . During the Yuan Dynasty that the Mongols founded, Muslim scientists were highly regarded and Muslim beliefs were respected in the Yuan Dynasty . On the Mongol attacks, the Muslim historian,ibn al-Athir lamented:

“

I shrank from giving a recital of these events on the account of their magnitude and abhorrence. Even now I come reluctant to the task, for who would deem it a light thing to sing the death song of Islam and the Muslims or find it easy to tell this tale? O that my mother had not given me birth! ^{[ 104 ]}

”

Among the detailed atrocities include:

The Grand Library of Baghdad , containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river.

Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed with abandon. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died (Sicker 2000, p. 111). Other estimates go much higher. Wassaf claims the loss of life was several hundred thousand. Ian Frazier of The New Yorker says estimates of the death toll have ranged from 200,000 to a million. ^{[ 105 ]}

The Mongols looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground.

The caliph was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth was offended if touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia.

Hulagu had to move his camp upwind of the city, due to the stench of decay from the ruined city.

At the intervention of the Mongol Hulagu's Nestorian Christian wife, Dokuz Khatun , the Christian inhabitants were spared. ^{[ 106 ]} ^{[ 107 ]} Hulagu offered the royal palace to the NestorianCatholicos Mar Makikha , and ordered a cathedral to be built for him. ^{[ 108 ]} Ultimately, the seventh ruler of the Ilkhanate dynasty, Mahmud Ghazan , converted to Islam from Buddhism, and thus began the gradual trend of the decline of Buddhism in the region and renaissance of Islam. Later, three of the four principal Mongol khanates embraced Islam . ^{[ 109 ]}

Yuan Mongol Oppression of Muslims in China

Genghis Khan , and the following Yuan Emperors in China forbade Islamic practicies like halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. ^{[ 110 ]} Genghis Khan directly called Muslims "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat kosher . ^{[ 111 ]} Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had the name "kamsia," which, in Chinese, means "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them. ^{[ 112 ]} Some claim that the fact that foreign Muslims were put into the second classSemu above Chinese was a fact that Mongols favored Muslims. However, this is wrong, it was because the Muslims were foreigners, not because that they were Muslim were they put into the Semu class. Non Muslim Christians and Jews were also put into Semu, and Semu was still second class, lower that the Mongols themselves, therefore Muslims were still considered slaves to the Mongols. Also, Muslims already in China before the Mongol conquest were not put into the Second class Semu position, and example of this is the ancestors of the Empress Ma of the Ming Dynasty, whose ancestors arrived during the Song Dynasty, and participated in resistance against the Mongols. ^{[ 113 ]}

Persecution of Muslims in the former USSR

The USSR was hostile to all forms of religion, which was "the opiate of the masses" according to Karl Marx . Relative religious freedom existed for Muslims in the years following the revolution, but in the late 1920s the Soviet government took a strong anti-religious turn. Many Muslim regions of the Soviet Union, like other non-ethnic Russian regions, were subjected to intense russification. ^{[ citation needed ]} Many mosques were closed. ^{[ 114 ]} During Stalin's reign, Crimean Tatar and Chechen Muslims were victims of mass deportation. However, the deportation was not religious persecution, it was officially based on the facts of Collaborationism ^{[ 115 ]} during the Nazi occupation of Crimea. ^{[ 116 ]} The deportation had begun on 17 May 1944 in all Crimean inhabited localities. More than 32,000 NKVD troops participated in this action. 193,865 Crimean Tatars were deported, 151,136 of them to Uzbek SSR , 8,597 to Mari ASSR , 4,286 to Kazakh SSR , the rest 29,846 to the various oblasts of RSFSR .

From May to November 10,105 Crimean Tatars died of starvation in Uzbekistan (7% of deported to Uzbek SSR). Nearly 30,000 (20%) died in exile during the year and a half by the NKVD data and nearly 46% by the data of the Crimean Tatar activists. According to Soviet dissident information, many Crimean Tatars were made to work in the large-scale projects conducted by the Soviet GULAG system. ^{[ 117 ]}

Persecution of Muslims in China

Dungan Ethnic Cleansing

Main articles: Dungan revolt and Panthay rebellion

The Dungan revolt erupted due to infighting between different Muslim Sufi sects, the Khafiya and the Jahariyya, and the Gedimu . When the rebellion failed, mass-immigration of theDungan people into Imperial Russia , Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan ensued. Before the war, the population of Shaanxi province totalled approximately 13 million inhabitants, at least 1,750,000 of whom were Dungan (Hui). After the war, the population dropped to 7 million; at least 150,000 fled. Xi'an, the capital of Shaanxi province, was the Holy city of Dungan (Hui) in China before the revolt. But once-flourishing Chinese Muslim communities fell 93% in the revolt in Shaanxi province. Between 1648 and 1878, around twelve million Hui and Han Chinese were killed in ten unsuccessful uprisings. ^{[ 118 ]} ^{[ 119 ]} ^{[ 120 ]} The revolts were harshly suppressed by the Manchu government in a manner that amounts to genocide. ^{[ 121 ]} ^{[ 122 ]} ^{[ 123 ]} ^{[124 ]} Approximately a million people in the Panthay rebellion were killed, ^{[ 125 ]} ^{[ 126 ]} and several million in the Dungan revolt ^{[ 126 ]} as a " washing off the Muslims"(洗回 (xi Hui)) policy had been long advocated by officials in the Manchu government. ^{[ 127 ]} Many Chinese Muslim generals like Ma Zhanao , Ma Anliang , Ma Qianling , Dong Fuxiang , Ma Haiyan , and Ma Julung helped the Qing dynasty defeat the rebel Muslims, and were rewarded, and their followers were spared from the genocide. The Han Chinese Qing general Zuo Zongtang even relocated the Han from the suburbs Hezhou when the Muslims there surrendered as a reward. The Muslims were granted amnesty and allowed to live as long as they stayed outside the city. ^{[ 128 ]} Some of the Muslims who fought, like General Dong, did not do it because they were Muslim, rather, like many other generals, they gathered bands of followers and fought at will. ^{[ 129 ]} ^{[ 130 ]}

However, Muslims in other parts of China proper like in the east and southern provinces who did not revolt, were not affected at all by the rebeelion, and experienced no genocide, nor did they seek to revolt. It was reported that Muslim villages in Henan province, which was next to Shaanxi, were totally unnaffected by the Dungan revolt and relations between Han and Hui continued normally. Muslims from eastern China like Ma Xinyi continued to serve in the Chinese government during the revolt, and ignored the Muslims of the northwest China.

Gedimu Hanafi Sunni Muslims tried to distance themselves from the Jahriyya Sufi rebels. Some of them even helped the Qing dynasty crush the Sufi rebels. ^{[ 131 ]}

Chinese Muslims, (Dungans) also participated on attacks on Uyghurs. Several Chinese Muslim Generals defected to the Qing dynasty and assisted Chinese forces in attacking the Uyghurs in Xinjiang. Cui Wei and Hua Decai each led one of the 'Eighteen Shaanxi Divisions' of rebellious Muslim troops that, after retreating from Shaanxi, continued to fight the Qing in Gansu. Of the eighteen divisional leaders of these divisions, six were killed, eleven including Cui Wei and Hua Decai surrendered to the Qing and one, Bai Yanhu, found sanctuary in the Russian empire. After their surrender, Cui Wei and Hua Decai spearheaded the Qing attack of many of the fortified towns of eastern and southern Xinjiang. ^{[ 132 ]}

During the revolt, Uyghur forces performed massacres on Dungans, in one instance, they massacred Dungans in Ili, in another, they even enlisted Han Chinese militia to help kill Dungans and conquer Xinjiang. ^{[ 133 ]}

The Qing dynasty did not persecute Muslims systematically, it only massacred rebels regardless of their religion, when the Muslim General Ma Rulong defected to the Qing Dynasty, he became the most powerful military official in Yunnan province. ^{[ 132 ]}

It was noted that the Qing armies only massacred the Muslims who had rebelled, and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising. ^{[ 134 ]}

East Turkistan and the Uyghurs

Further information: Ghulja Incident , July 2009 Ürümqi riots , and 2008 Uyghur unrest

Tensions between Uyghur and Hui Muslims arise because Qing and Republican Chinese authorities used Hui troops and officials to dominate the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts. ^{[ 135 ]}

Many Uyghurs face religious persecution and discrimination at the hands of the government authorities. Uyghurs who choose to practice their faith can only use a state-approved version of the Koran; ^{[ 136 ]} men who work in the state sector cannot wear beards and women cannot wear headscarves. ^{[ 137 ]} The Chinese state controls the management of all mosques, which many Uyghurs claim stifles religious traditions that have formed a crucial part of the Uyghur identity for centuries. ^{[ 138 ]} Children under the age of 18 are not allowed to attend religious services at mosques. ^{[ 139 ]}

Hui population of xinjiang increased by 520 percent from 1940–1982, average annual growth of 4.4 percent, the Uyghur population grew at 1.7 percent. This increase in Hui population led to tensions between the Hui Muslim and Uyghur Muslim populations. Some old Uyghurs in Kashgar remember that the Hui army at the Battle of Kashgar (1934) massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which causes tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China. ^{[ 140 ]}

However, the suppression of the Uyghurs has more to do with the fact that they are separatist, rather than Muslim. The government of China was willing to compromisie with Hui (Chinese Muslim) activists when they staged public marches in Beijing and Lanzhou in 1989 to protest the publication of a book they deemed insulting to Islam, police protected the marchers and the government even agreed to the protestor's demands: the offensive book was banned and its authors were arrested. The Chinese government assisted them because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs. ^{[ 141 ]}

Tibetan Persecution of Muslims

The majority of Muslims in Tibet are Hui people. Riots broke out between Muslims and Tibetans over incidents such as bones in soups and prices of balloons. Tibetans attacked Muslim restaurants. During the mid-March riots in 2008, Muslim shopkeepers and their families were badly hurt and some were killed when fires set in their shops spread to upstairs apartments.Due to Tibetan violence against Muslims, many Muslims have stopped wearing the traditional white caps that identify their religion. Many women now wear a hairnet instead of a scarf.Since the nearest mosque was burned down in August, the Muslims pray at home in secret. The Tibetan exile community is reluctant to publicize incidents that might harm the international image of Tibetans. The Hui usually support the Chinese government's repression of Tibetan separatism. ^{[ 142 ]}

Persecution of Muslims in Southeast Asia

Myanmar (formerly Burma)

Main articles: Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar and Rohingya people

Myanmar has a Buddhist majority. The Muslim minority in Myanmar mostly consists of the Rohingya people and the descendants of Muslim immigrants from India (including what is nowBangladesh ) and China (the ancestors of Chinese Muslims in Myanmar came from the Yunnan province), as well as descendants of earlier Arab and Persian settlers. Indian Muslims were brought to Burma by the British to aid them in clerical work and business. After independence, many Muslims retained their previous positions and achieved prominence in business and politics.

Buddhist persecution of Muslims arose from religious reasons, and occurred during the reign of King Bayinnaung , 1550-1589 AD. After conquering Bago in 1559, the Buddhist King prohibited the practice of halal , specifically, killing food animals in the name of God. He was religiously intolerant, forcing some of his subjects to listen to Buddhist sermons possibly converting by force. He also disallowed the Eid al-Adha , religious sacrifice of cattle. Halal food was also forbidden by King Alaungpaya in the 18th century.

When General Ne Win swept to power on a wave of nationalism in 1962, the status of Muslims changed for the worse. Muslims were expelled from the army and were rapidly marginalized. ^{[ 143 ]} Muslims are stereotyped in the society as "cattle killers" (referring to the cattle sacrifice festival of Eid Al Adha in Islam). The generic racist slur of "Kala" (black) used against perceived "foreigners" has especially negative connotations when referring to Burmese Muslims. The more pious Muslim communities which segregate themselves from the Buddhist majority face greater difficulties than those Muslims who integrate more at the cost of not observing Islamic personal laws. ^{[ 89 ]}

Muslims in Myanmar are affected by the actions of Islamic Fundamentalists in other countries. Violence in Indonesia perpetrated by Islamists is used as a pretext to commit violence against Muslim minorities in Burma. The anti-Buddhist actions of the Taliban in Afghanistan (the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan ) was also used as a pretext to commit violence against Muslims in Myanmar by Buddhist mobs. Human Rights Watch reports that there was mounting tension between the Buddhist and Muslim communities in Taungoo for weeks before it erupted into violence in the middle of May 2001. Buddhist monks demanded that the Hantha Mosque in Taungoo be destroyed in "retaliation" for the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan . ^{[ 144 ]} Mobs of Buddhists, led by monks, vandalized Muslim owned businesses and property and attacked and killed Muslims in Muslim communities. This was followed by retaliation by Muslims against Buddhists. Human Rights Watch also alleges that Burmese military intelligence agents disguised as monks, led the mobs. ^{[ 145 ]}

The dictatorial government, which operates a pervasive internal security apparatus, generally infiltrates or monitors the meetings and activities of virtually all organizations, including religious organizations. Religious freedom for Muslims is reduced. Monitoring and control of Islam undermines the free exchange of thoughts and ideas associated with religious activities.^{[ 146 ]}

It is widely feared that persecution of Muslims in Myanmar could foment Islamic fundamentalism in the country. ^{[ 147 ]} Many Muslims have joined armed resistance groups that are fighting for greater freedom in Myanmar, ^{[ 148 ]} but are not Islamic fundamentalists as such.

Persecution of Muslims in India

The 16th-century Babri Mosque in India was destroyed by a mob of Hindu extremists in 1992.

There were widespread riots during the Partition of British India in 1947, with attacks on Muslim minorities by Hindu and Sikh mobs and vice versa. In order to facilitate the creation of new states along religious lines population exchanges between India and Pakistan were implemented, at the expense of significant human suffering in the process. A large number of people on both sides (more than a million by some estimates) died in the accompanying violence. After the annexation of the Muslim-ruled state of Hyderabad by India in 1948, about 7,000 Muslim Arabs were due to emigrate to Pakistan at their own will from India. ^{[ 149 ]} Most Muslims, however chose to stay in India. There was widespread violence against the Muslims as an aftermath of the 'Police Action' (officially Operation Polo ) and Nehru had a committee investigate the pogrom against Muslims, but the resulting Sundarlal Report was never made public (an estimated 50-200,000 Muslims are believed to have been killed). ^{[ 150 ]}

In 1992, members of the Vishva Hindu Parishad and the Bajrang Dal destroyed the 430 year old Babri Mosque in Ayodhya , ^{[ 151 ]} on the basis that the mosque was built over the birthplace of the Hindu deity Rama and that a Hindu temple existed at the site before the erection of the Mosque by demolishing the temple. The demolition was followed by riots in Bombay .

The Sangh Parivar family of organizations has allegedly been involved in encouraging negative stereotypes of Muslims, and in the 2002 Gujarat violence they were allegedly responsible for encouraging attacks against Muslims in response to the Godhra train burning allegedly by Muslims in which 60 Hindus were killed. ^{[ 152 ]}Subsequent riots led to the death of several hundred Muslims. Another major incident was at Naroda Patia , where a Hindu mob massacred more than 100 Muslims after an incident sparked by Muslim on Hindu violence had got out of hand. In another incident at Best Bakery , in the city of Baroda , 12 men were massacred and burnt. ^{[ 153 ]} The Gujarat riots officially led to the death of 1,044 people, 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus. Human Rights Watch puts the death toll at higher figures, with 2000 deaths, mostly with attacks against Muslims by Hindu mobs. ^{[ 154 ]} These figures are disputed, particularly on the basis that the figure of 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus was reiterated in Parliament by the staunchly anti-Sangh Parivar UPA government. ^{[ 155 ]} Another 100,000 Muslims became homeless, according to the US State Department 's 2002 human rights report on India. Official figures report 60000 Muslims rendered homeless versus 10000 Hindus. About 20,000 Muslim businesses were destroyed. ^{[ 156 ]}

Recently Hindu mobs again attacked Muslim villages after cows were claimed to have been sacrificed for the festivities of Eid . In 2005, this caused the destruction of 40 homes and 3 deaths. Despite these occasional communal tensions between the Hindus and the Muslims, they enjoy a cordial relationship between each other; and out of the 12 Presidents of Indiasince Independence, three have been Muslims, even though Muslims form only 13.4% of Indian population.

Persecution of Muslims in Sri Lanka

Main article: Expulsion of Muslims from the Northern province by LTTE

The 1990 explusion of Muslims from Sri Lanka was an act of ethnic cleansing ^{[ 157 ]} ^{[ 158 ]} carried out by Tamils of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) organization in October 1990. In order to achieve their goal of creating a mono ethnic Tamil state ^{[ 159 ]} ^{[ 160 ]} in the North Sri Lanka , the LTTE forcibly expelled the 75,000 strong Muslim population from the Northern Province. ^{[ 161 ]} The first expulsion was in Chavakacheri , of 1,500 people. After this, Muslims in Kilinochchi and Mannar were forced many to leave their homeland. The turn ofJaffna came on 30 October 1990; when LTTE trucks drove through the streets ordering Muslim families to assemble at Osmania College . There, they were told to exit the city within two hours.

On 4 August 1990, Tamil militants massacred over 147 Muslims in a mosque in Kattankudi . ^{[ 162 ]} ^{[ 163 ]} ^{[ 164 ]} ^{[ 165 ]} The act took place when around 30 Tamil rebels raided four mosques in the town of Kattankudi, where over 300 people were prostrating during prayers.

Current situation

Islamophobia in Europe

Main article: Islamophobia

EUMC report

The largest monitoring project to be commissioned about Islamophobia was undertaken following 9/11 by the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). Their May 2002 report "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001 ", written by Dr. Chris Allen and Jorgen S. Nielsen of the University of Birmingham , was based on 75 reports – 15 from each EU member nation. ^{[ 168 ]}

The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets of abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks after 9/11. Despite localized differences within each member nation, the recurrence of attacks on recognizable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report's most significant finding. The attacks took the form of verbal abuse; blaming all Muslims for terrorist attacks; women having their hijab torn from their heads; male and female Muslims being spat at; children being called " Usama "; and random violent assaults, which left victims hospitalized, and on one occasion, left a victim paralyzed. ^{[ 168 ]}

The report also discussed the representation of Muslims in the media. Inherent negativity, stereotypical images, fantastical representations, and exaggerated caricatures were all identified. The report concluded that "a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated." ^{[ 168 ]}

France

Germany

Main article: Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini

Main article: Islam in Germany

United Kingdom

Persecution of Muslims in post-Soviet Russia

Due to the large activity of Islamic Chechen terrorism in Russia : Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis with 129 victims, Kizlyar hospital hostage crisis with 100 victims, Ferry hijacking ,Moscow theater hostage crisis with 129 victims, Riyadus-Salikhin 's bombing in Moscow and Yessentuki ^{[ 177 ]} with 47 victims, Beslan school hostage crisis with 385 children victims,Russian apartment bombings with 300 victims carried by Muslim society and the growth of Tajik organized crime , ^{[ 178 ]} many Russians (including authorities) have associated Islam andMuslims with terrorism and domestic crimes. ^{[ 179 ]} ^{[ 180 ]} ^{[ 181 ]} ^{[ 182 ]} In August 2007 a video of 2 ethnic Russian neo-Nazis beheading two Muslim men, one from Dagestan in the Caucasus and one from Tajikistan appeared on the internet. ^{[ 183 ]} In February 2004, a nine-year old Tajik girl was stabbed to death in Saint Petersburg by suspected far-right skinheads .^{[ 184 ]} ^{[ 185 ]} In December 2008 an email, containing a picture of the severed head of a man identified as Salekh Azizov , was sent to the Moscow Human Rights Bureau. It was sent by a group called Russian Nationalists' Combat Group and has led to protests from the Tajik Government. ^{[ 186 ]} Despite these facts with large resonance the quantity of victims between Tajik immigrants ^{[ 186 ]} is two time less than average quantity of victims per million inhabitants in Russia in 2008. ^{[ 187 ]}

Persecution of Muslims in The United States of America

In the aftermath of 9/11 , hate crimes against people of Middle-Eastern descent increased from 354 attacks in 2000 to 1,501 attacks in 2001. ^{[ 188 ]} Among the victims of the backlash was a Middle-Eastern man in Houston , Texas who was shot and wounded after an assailant accused him of "blowing up the country" ^{[ 189 ]} and four immigrants shot and killed by a man named Larme Price who confessed to killing them as "revenge" for the September 11 attacks . ^{[ 190 ]} Although Price described his victims as Arabs, only one was from an Arab country. This appears to be a trend; on account of stereotypes of Arabs , several non-Arab, non-Muslim groups were subjected to attacks in the wake of 9/11, including several Sikh men attacked for wearing their religiously mandated turban . ^{[ 191 ]} According to a report prepared by the Arab American Institute , three days after the Oklahoma City bombing , "more than 200 serious hate crimes were committed against Arab Americans and American Muslims . The same was true in the days following September 11." ^{[ 189 ]}

The Dove World Outreach Centre church in Gainesville, Florida planned to burn Qurans on the ninth anniversary of the 9/11 attacks. Despite warning from the military leadership in theAfghan War , Terry Jones, the pastor of the centre, said it would be "tragic" if anybody's life was lost as a result of the planned Quran burning. While he added "Still, I must say that we feel that we must sooner or later stand up to Islam, and if we don't, it's not going to go away." His church's website claims to "expose Islam" as a "violent and oppressive religion;" it also displays a sign reading "Islam of the Devil." ^{[ 192 ]}

Israel

In May 2010, a mosque in the West Bank was destroyed in an arson attack. ^{[ 193 ]} In previous months, other mosques had been attacked; some were vandalised with Hebrew graffiti and other mosques have been destroyed or damaged by arson in the past. ^{[ 193 ]} In June 2010, there were further acts of vandalism against mosques by Israelis. In northern Israel the walls of mosques were spray painted with the Star of David as well as messages such as "There will be war over Judea and Samaria" and "This structure is marked for demolition". ^{[ 194 ]}

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Persecution of Muslims 2